$t{t}^{\ast }$ Toda equations for surface defects in $\mathcal{N}=2$ SYM and instanton counting for classical Lie groups

The partition function of $\mathcal{N}=2$ super Yang-Mills theories with arbitrary simple gauge group coupled to a self-dual $\mathrm{\Omega }$-background is shown to be fully determined by studying the renormalization group equations relevant to the surface operators generating its one-form symmetries. The corresponding system of equations results in a $non-autonomous$ Toda chain on the root system of the Langlands dual, the evolution parameter being the RG scale. A systematic algorithm computing the full multi-instanton corrections is derived in terms of recursion relations whose gauge theoretical solution is obtained just by fixing the perturbative part of the IR prepotential as its asymptotic boundary condition for the RGE. We analyse the explicit solutions of the $\tau$-system for all the classical groups at the diverse levels, extend our analysis to affine twisted Lie algebras and provide conjectural bilinear relations for the $\tau$-functions of linear quiver gauge theory.