PoLO: Proof-of-Learning and Proof-of-Ownership at Once with Chained Watermarking

Our evaluation shows that PoLO achieves $\mathbf{\text{99\%}}$ watermark detection accuracy for ownership verification, while preserving data privacy and cutting verification costs to just $\mathbf{\text{1.5–10\%}}$ of traditional methods. Forging PoLO demands $\mathbf{\text{1.1–4}}\times$ more resources than honest proof generation, with the original proof retaining over $\mathbf{\text{90\%}}$ detection accuracy even after attacks.