eHMI for All -- Investigating the Effect of External Communication of Automated Vehicles on Pedestrians, Manual Drivers, and Cyclists in Virtual Reality

With automated vehicles (AVs), the absence of a human operator could necessitate external Human-Machine Interfaces (eHMIs) to communicate with other road users. Existing research primarily focuses on pedestrian-AV interactions, with limited attention given to other road users, such as cyclists and drivers of manually driven vehicles. So far, no studies have compared the effects of eHMIs across these three road user roles. Therefore, we conducted a within-subjects virtual reality experiment (N=40), evaluating the subjective and objective impact of an eHMI communicating the AV’s intention to pedestrians, cyclists, and drivers under various levels of distraction (no distraction, visual noise, interference). eHMIs positively influenced safety perceptions, trust, perceived usefulness, and mental demand across all roles. While distraction and road user roles showed significant main effects, interaction effects were only observed in perceived usability. Thus, a unified eHMI design is effective, facilitating the standardization and broader adoption of eHMIs in diverse traffic.